Bhubaneswar: While Diwali is being celebrated across India on Sunday, its historical evolution is not easy to establish through a single religious text or tradition. The festival has acquired different associations over centuries, and its earliest references have been examined through Sanskrit and Prakrit literature, inscriptions, historical accounts and descriptions by foreign travellers.
One of the important attempts to trace this history was made by Sanskrit and Prakrit scholar PK Gode in 1945, in his research paper Studies in the History of Hindu Festivals—Some Notes on the History of Divālī Festival (Between c. AD 50 and 1945), published in the Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
Gode began by referring to a 1916 Marathi publication, History of Aryan Festivals, written by an author identified as Rgvedi. The publication described Diwali as a seasonal festival observed towards the end of Ashwin and during the first four days of Kartik, around the new moon. The festival marked the onset of colder weather and coincided with the completion of the rice harvest, when agricultural activities shifted towards preparing and manuring the fields for the next crop.
Gode also examined the historical and literary accounts that associated Diwali with different religious traditions. One of the earliest references he investigated was in the Kamasutra, generally dated between the first and fourth centuries, which mentions a festival called Yaksharatri. Twelfth-century Jain scholar Hemachandra subsequently equated the term with Dipavali or Dipamalika in his lexicon Desi-nama-mala. This provided Gode with an important starting point for investigating the antiquity of the festival, although the identification of the earlier festival with modern Diwali remains a matter of historical interpretation.
He also traced references to the festival in sixth- and seventh-century literary works, including Nilamata Purana of Kashmir and Sri Harsha’s Sanskrit play Nagananda.
Another important historical reference came from the writings of Iranian scholar and traveller Al-Biruni, who documented Hindu festivals and festive days in northern India around 1030 CE. Gode also referred to an inscription dating to 1119 CE, from the reign of Chalukya ruler Tribhuvanamalla, which mentioned Dipavali. The inscription provided evidence of the festival’s observance in the Deccan.
Later historical accounts offer further evidence of its geographical spread. Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari, written during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar in the sixteenth century, compared Diwali with the Muslim festival of Shab-i-Barat. Gode also examined references to celebrations among the Marathas in the eighteenth century, including a chronicle from the period of Mahadji Scindia.
In his 1903 historical dictionary Hobson-Jobson, Henry Yule and AC Burnell traced the term ‘Dewally’ through accounts of foreign travellers dating back to 1613. They described it as an autumnal festival associated with several deities, including Lakshmi and Bhavani, as well as Krishna’s victory over Narakasura and the liberation of 16,000 captive maidens.
Gode’s research also drew attention to the differences in the timing, rituals and religious significance of Diwali among communities. He referred to Margaret Stevenson’s account of Jain festivals in the Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (1912), which highlighted the importance of Diwali to Jain mercantile communities and their worship of Lakshmi. He also cited Gerini’s account of the Buddhist-influenced Siamese Feast of Lamps.
Together, these historical records indicate that Diwali cannot be understood through a single origin story or religious interpretation. Its observance evolved through different literary, religious, agricultural and cultural traditions. What remains common across many of these celebrations is the symbolism of light, renewal and the transition towards a new season or beginning.